Background: Mangrove forests are crucial ecosystems which support biodiversity, protect coastlines and store vast amounts of carbon. Mangrove conservation and protection rely on accurate carbon accounting to unlock investment. However, the allometric equations underpinning these carbon estimates remain poorly constrained, particularly for the large trees. Methods: We used terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) to estimate the biomass of 187 mangrove stems across Suriname, Panama, Colombia and Jamaica, including 84 stems >20 cm DBH. TLS-derived biomass estimates were used to evaluate local, regional and pantropical allometric equations. Results: Most diameter-based allometric equations underestimated biomass by 8 - 65%. Equations additionally incorporating tree height performed better, but still underestimated biomass by 12 -16% on average. Applying alternative allometries to a representative mangrove inventory from Panama produced biomass estimates ranging from 80 to 200 Mg/ha, demonstrating that allometric uncertainty alone can generate more than a two-fold difference in estimated carbon stocks. Conclusions: Current allometric equations systematically underestimate the biomass of large mangrove trees and are therefore likely to underestimate mangrove carbon stocks. TLS provides a practical, non-destructive approach for expanding biomass datasets and improving allometric equations. Reducing allometric uncertainty should be a priority for strengthening blue carbon accounting and mangrove conservation.
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